Pyeongwon-wang / 평원왕 (Goguryeo)
![[Resim: 66661877.png]](http://img195.imageshack.us/img195/4483/66661877.png)
Imparator Pyeongwon 6. yüzyilda yasamis(s. 559 - 590), Kore'nin Üç Kralligi'ndan en kuzeydeki Goguryeo'nun yirmi besinci hükümdariydi.
GEÇMISI
Babasi Kral Yangwon'un (s. 545 - 559) saltanati boyunca krallik, Seoul bölgesini Silla ve Baekje kuvvetlerinin ittifaki ve Göktürkler'in istilalariyla kaybetti. Yangwon, prens Pyeongwon'u 559'daki ölümünden iki yil önce halefi olarak atadi. Cesur ve binicilikle okçulukta yetenekli olan Pyeongwon, tarim ve ipekböcekçiliginin gelismesini özendirdi; Göktürkler ile kuzeydeki çok sayida Çin kralliklari ve güneydeki hanedanliklarla barisçil iliskiler içinde oldu. Pyeongwon'un saltanati kötü maliye yönetimi nedeniyle 590'da son buldu.
Kore Budizmi, Pyeongwon'un emriyle Budizm'in sistematik arastirmasini yapmasi için Çin'e gönderilen Rahip Uiyon'la en yüksek seviyesine ulasti.
HAYATI
Pyeongwon'un saltanatindaki yillari, tarihçilerin üzerinde fikir birligine vardiklari konu olmakla birlikte dogum yili kesin olarak ortaya konulamamistir. Imparator Yangwon'un en büyük oglu oldugu ve iki yil önce 557'de iktidari tüm gücüyle ele geçirdigi bilinir. Cesur ve binicilikle okçulukta yetenekli oldugu söylenmektedir.
Tahta çikincaya kadar kraliyetin gücü, asilzadeler tarafindan önemli ölçüde yipratilmisti. Halkinin durumuyla ilgili olarak Pyeongwon, tarimin ve ipekböcekçiliginin gelisimini özendirip sarayin gida harcamalarini azaltti.
Pyeongwon, Göktürkler ve birçok Çin hanedanligiyla (Liaodong Yarimadasi'ndaki Kuzey Zhou'yla kisa süren savas) olan gergin iliskiler yerine barisçil iliskiler içinde oldu. Birlesik Çin'in Sui Hanedanligi'na karsi olasi bir savasa Imparator Pyeongwon hazirlandi. Baekje-Silla ittifaki dagilinca, Goguryeo'nun güney sinirindaki diger iki Kore kralliklari barisçil tutum sergiledi. 590'da Pyeongwon'un hükümdarligi herhangi bir belgeyle kanitlanamamis olsa da ölümüyle son buldu.
GOGURYEO KRALLIGI
Göktürkler (Kök-Türks veya Ashina), ortaçag Çin kaynaklarina göre Tujue (突厥 Tūjué) olarak bilinen eski bir Orta Asya Türk halkiydi. Bumin Kagan (ö. 552) ve ogullarinin önderliginde bölgedeki Hiung-nu'yu Türk gücünün merkezi yaparak karli Ipek Yolu ticaretini ele geçirdi. Savas ve diplomaside üstünlüge sahip olan Bumin, ölmeden bir yil önce Hiung-nu'nun eski baskenti Ötüken'de Göktürk Imparatorlugu'nu kurarak kendisini krallarin büyük krali anlamina gelen Il Kagan ilan etti. Oglu Mukhan fetihleriyle güçlenerek imparatorlugu evrensel bir güce ulastirdi. Bumin'in kardesi Istemi, (ö. 576) batinin yabgusu ünvanini alarak Iranli Sasanilerle isbirligi yapti ve Cücenlerin ittifak içinde bulundugu Akhunlari yok etti. Avarlari Avrupa içlerine sürerek Ashina'nin Ipek Yolu'nu ticaretini saglamlastirdi.
Istemi'nin batiya genisleme politikasi, Türkleri Dogu Avrupa'ya getirmekti. 576'da Göktürkler Kirim'daki Kimmerler Bogazi'ni geçti. Bes yil sonra Tauris'i ablukaya alip; süvarilerinin Kirim steplerinde dolasmalarini 590'a kadar engelledi. Güneyde, önceki müttefikleri Sasanilerle çatismaya girdi. Belh'in de dahil oldugu Baktria'nin büyük bir kismi yüzyilin sonuna kadar Ashina'nin sömürgesi olarak kaldi. 588'de Birinci Sasani-Göktürk Savasi'nda Herat surlarinin altindaydilar; fakat Bahram Chobin büyük bir ustalikla saldirilara karsi koydu.
Dogudaki genis egemenlik bölgesinde Göktürk Imparatorlugu, Mançurya'yi ve Kore Yarimadasi'nin kuzey bölümünü kontrol altinda tutan Goguryeo Imparatorlugu'yla daha yakin iliskiler içine girdi. Hediyelerin degisimi, askeri destek için erzak saglanmasi ve serbest ticaret gibi unsurlar bu yakin ittifakin ortak faydalariydi. Kuzey Çin'deki her iki rakip ülke 581'den itibaren Göktürkler'e büyük vergiler ödedi.
Çin
Goguryeo her bir Çin eyaletiyle ölçülü diplomatik iliskiler içinde oldu ve Kuzey Qi Hanedanligi, Kuzey Zhou Hanedanligi ve Chen Hanedanligi hükümdarlarina vergi verdi. Çin'de Sui Hanedanligi'ndan önce gelen Güney ve Kuzey Hanedanliklari'nda ortaya çikan 16 Krallik iç savas ve siyasi uyusmazlik dönemiydi. Bununla birlikte o dönem sanat ve kültürde gösterisin, teknolojideki ilerlemenin ve yabanci Mahayana Budizmi ile yerel Taoizm'in yayildigi zamandi. Tipik Çin Budizmi'nin yanisira ortaya çiktigi zamanda kuzey ve güney hanedanliklariyla benzer sekilde olgunlasip gelismistir. Budist kutsal kitaplarinin ana hatlariyla Taoizm'in nüfuzu artmis ve iki temel Taoist ilkesi bu dönemde yazilmistir.
Goguryeo'da Budizm
Kore'de Budizm aslinda tarihi Buddha'nin ölümünden yaklasik 800 yil sonra Çin'den ögrenilmistir. 372'de önceki Qin hükümdari Fujian, Çinli kesis Sundo'yu Goguryeo krali Sosurim'in sarayina Çin metinlerini ve yasalarini götürmesi göndermistir. Samanizm, Kore'de yerel bir dindi; ancak Budizm doga ibadeti kurallariyla uyusmazlik içinde degildi, Goguryeo kraliyet ailesi ve tebaasi ögretilerini çabucak kabul etmistir. Budist öncesi zamanlarda ruhlarin mekani olduguna inanilan daglar Budist tapinaklarinin yeri oldu.
Kore Samanizmi'nde özellikle saygi gösterilen üç büyük ruh vardi: Sanshin (Dag Ruhu), Toksong (Münzevi) ve Chilsong (Yedi Yildizin Ruhu). Kore Budizm'i bu üç ruhu kabul edip kutsal emanetlerini birçok tapinaga yaydi. Dag Ruhu, tapinaklarda duran yerel dag ruhlarini yatistirmasi için özel olarak kabul edildi. Budizm ve Samanizm'in karisimi Buddha'nin temel ögretilerine karsi Kore Budizmi olarak bilinmeye basladi.
Çin Budizmi, sebep - sonuç kuralina ve Samanizm'le ortak olan mutlulugun aranmasi ilkesine dayaniyordu. Kore Budizmi, Pyeongwon'un emriyle Çin'e egitim almasi ve Budizm'in sistematik arastirmasi için gönderilen rahip Uiyon zamaninda en yüksek seviyesine ulasti. Uiyon'un arastirmasi üzerinde özellikle durdugu nokta "bilgelik", "anlayis", "dirayet", "bilissel duyarlilik" ya da "neyin nasil yapilmasi gerektigi" anlamlarina gelen "Prajñā veya paññā"dir.
Goguryeo Budizmi'nin diger bir özelligi ise Japonya'yla yakin isbirligi içinde olmasidir. Japon klasik tarihinin ikinci büyük kitabi Nihon Shoki, birçok Goguryeo kesisinin isminden bahsetmektedir. Örnegin Japon Budist rahibenin babasi Kore'den bir göçmendir ve Budist efendisi bir Goguryeo kesisidir. Prens Shotoku'nun Budist efendisi de bir Goguryeo kesisiydi.
English
Pyeongwon of Goguryeo
Emperor Pyeongwon of Goguryeo (ruled 559—590) was a sixth century Korean monarch, the twenty-fifth ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
BACKGROUND
During the reign of his father, King Yangwon (양원왕; 陽原王; r. 545 – 559), the kingdom had lost the region of Seoul to an alliance of Silla and Baekje forces, and was threatened with invasions by the Göktürks. Yangwon designated prince Pyeongwon (Go Yang-seong) as his successor two years before his death in 559. Courageous, and skilled in horsemanship and archery, Pyeongwon encouraged the development of agriculture and sericulture, and maintained relatively peaceful relations with the Göktürks and the various Chinese kingdoms of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The rule of Pyeongwon ended in 590, under undocumented circumstances.
Korean Buddhism reached its highest level under the priest Uiyon (義淵), who was ordered by Pyeongwon to go and study in China, where he conducted a systematic research of Buddhism.
LIFE
The years of Pyeongwon's rule are generally agreed upon by historians, but his year of birth has not been established with any degree of certainty. It is known that he was the eldest son of Emperor Yangwon and became crown prince in 557, two years before assuming full power. He is said to have been courageous, and skilled in horsemanship and archery.
By the time he ascended the throne, royal power had been significantly eroded by the aristocracy. Concerned about the circumstances of his people, Pyeongwon encouraged the development of agriculture and sericulture, and reduced royal expenditures on food.
Pyeongwon maintained tense but relatively peaceful relations with the Göktürks and the various Chinese dynasties, briefly battling the Northern Zhou in the Liaodong Peninsula. As the Sui Dynasty united China, Emperor Pyeongwon prepared for the impending war. As the Silla-Baekje alliance fell apart, Goguryeo’s southern border with the other two Korean kingdoms was relatively peaceful The rule of Pyeongwon of Goguryeo came to an end in 590, which is presumed to be the year of his death, but there is no specific documentation to confirm the circumstances.
GOGURYEO KINGDOM
The Göktürks (Kök-Türks, or Ashina) were an ancient Central Asian Turkic people, known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue (突厥 Tūjué). Under the leadership of Bumin Khan (d. 552) and his sons, they succeeded the Xiongnu as the main Turkic power in the region and took hold of the lucrative Silk Road trade. Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Il-Qaghan ("great king of kings") of the new Göktürk empire at Otukan, the old Xiongnu capital, but died a year later. His son Mukhan consolidated his conquests into an empire of global reach. Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576), titled yabghu of the west, collaborated with the Persian Sassanids to defeat and destroy the White Huns, who were allies of the Rouran, and drove the Avars into Europe, strengthening the Ashina hold on the Silk Road.
Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Turks into Eastern Europe. In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Cimmerian Bosporus into the Crimea. Five years later, they laid siege to Tauric Chersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590[1]. In the south they came into conflict with their former allies, the Sassanids of Persia. Much of Bactria (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century[2]. In 588, they were under the walls of Herat but Bahram Chobin ably countered the invasion during the First Perso-Turkic War.
In the eastern part of their extensive dominions, the Göktürk Empire maintained close political ties with the Goguryeo Empire, which controlled Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. The exchange of gifts, mutual provision of military support, and free trade were some of the benefits of this close mutual alliance. Both rival states in north China paid large tributes to the Göktürks from 581.
China
Goguryeo carefully maintained diplomatic relationship with each of the Chinese states and presented tribute to the suzerains of Northern Qi Dynasty, Northern Zhou Dynasty and Chen Dynasty. The period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (Chinese: 南北朝; pinyin: nánběicháo; 420-589 C.E.), which followed the Sixteen Kingdoms and preceded Sui Dynasty in China, was an age of civil war and political disunity. However, it was also a time of flourishing in the arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of foreign Mahayana Buddhism and native Daoism. Distinctive Chinese Buddhism also matured during this time and was shaped by the northern and southern dynasties alike. Daoism gained influence from the outline of Buddhist scriptures, and two essential Daoist canons were written during this period.
Although multiple-storied towers such as guard towers and residential apartments had existed previously, during this period the distinct Chinese pagoda tower (for storing Buddhist scriptures) evolved from the stupa, traditional Buddhist structures built to protect sutras in ancient India.
Buddhism in Goguryeo
Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from China about 800 years after the death of the historical Buddha. In 372, the Chinese monk Sundo (順道, or Shundao in Chinese) was sent by the Former Qin ruler Fujian (符堅) to the court of the King Sosurim (小獸林) of Goguryeo, bearing Chinese texts and statues. In Korea, shamanism was the indigenous religion, but as Buddhism was not seen to conflict with the rites of nature worship, the Goguryeo royalty and their subjects quickly accepted his teachings. Mountains that were believed to be the residence of spirits in pre-Buddhist times became the sites of Buddhist temples.
Korean Shamanism held three spirits in especially high regard: Sanshin (the Mountain Spirit), Toksong (the Recluse), and Chilsong (the Spirit of the Seven Stars, the Big Dipper). Korean Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and special shrines were set aside for them in many temples. The Mountain Spirit received particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local mountain spirits, on whose land the temples stood. This blend of Buddhism and Shamanism became known as Korean Buddhism, although the fundamental teachings of the Buddha remained.
The rudimentary Buddhism of China, consisting of the law of cause and effect and the search for happiness, had much in common with the predominant Shamanism. The Goguryeo court was attracted to the broad worldview of Buddhism, and wished to teach it to the people to enhance their spiritual development. Korean Buddhism reached its highest level under the priest Uiyon (義淵), who was ordered by Pyeongwon to go and study in China, where he conducted a systematic research of Buddhism. Uiyon especially focused his research on Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pali), translated as "wisdom," "understanding," "discernment," "cognitive acuity," or "know-how."
Another feature of Goguryeo Buddhism was its close association with Japan. The Nihon Shoki (日本書紀), the second oldest book of classical Japanese history, mentions the names of many Goguryeo monks. For example, the father of the first Japanese Buddhist nun (善信尼) was an immigrant from Korea, and her Buddhist master a Goguryeo monk. Prince Shotoku’s Buddhist master was also a Goguryeo monk.
Imparator Pyeongwon 6. yüzyilda yasamis(s. 559 - 590), Kore'nin Üç Kralligi'ndan en kuzeydeki Goguryeo'nun yirmi besinci hükümdariydi.
GEÇMISI
Babasi Kral Yangwon'un (s. 545 - 559) saltanati boyunca krallik, Seoul bölgesini Silla ve Baekje kuvvetlerinin ittifaki ve Göktürkler'in istilalariyla kaybetti. Yangwon, prens Pyeongwon'u 559'daki ölümünden iki yil önce halefi olarak atadi. Cesur ve binicilikle okçulukta yetenekli olan Pyeongwon, tarim ve ipekböcekçiliginin gelismesini özendirdi; Göktürkler ile kuzeydeki çok sayida Çin kralliklari ve güneydeki hanedanliklarla barisçil iliskiler içinde oldu. Pyeongwon'un saltanati kötü maliye yönetimi nedeniyle 590'da son buldu.
Kore Budizmi, Pyeongwon'un emriyle Budizm'in sistematik arastirmasini yapmasi için Çin'e gönderilen Rahip Uiyon'la en yüksek seviyesine ulasti.
HAYATI
Pyeongwon'un saltanatindaki yillari, tarihçilerin üzerinde fikir birligine vardiklari konu olmakla birlikte dogum yili kesin olarak ortaya konulamamistir. Imparator Yangwon'un en büyük oglu oldugu ve iki yil önce 557'de iktidari tüm gücüyle ele geçirdigi bilinir. Cesur ve binicilikle okçulukta yetenekli oldugu söylenmektedir.
Tahta çikincaya kadar kraliyetin gücü, asilzadeler tarafindan önemli ölçüde yipratilmisti. Halkinin durumuyla ilgili olarak Pyeongwon, tarimin ve ipekböcekçiliginin gelisimini özendirip sarayin gida harcamalarini azaltti.
Pyeongwon, Göktürkler ve birçok Çin hanedanligiyla (Liaodong Yarimadasi'ndaki Kuzey Zhou'yla kisa süren savas) olan gergin iliskiler yerine barisçil iliskiler içinde oldu. Birlesik Çin'in Sui Hanedanligi'na karsi olasi bir savasa Imparator Pyeongwon hazirlandi. Baekje-Silla ittifaki dagilinca, Goguryeo'nun güney sinirindaki diger iki Kore kralliklari barisçil tutum sergiledi. 590'da Pyeongwon'un hükümdarligi herhangi bir belgeyle kanitlanamamis olsa da ölümüyle son buldu.
GOGURYEO KRALLIGI
Göktürkler (Kök-Türks veya Ashina), ortaçag Çin kaynaklarina göre Tujue (突厥 Tūjué) olarak bilinen eski bir Orta Asya Türk halkiydi. Bumin Kagan (ö. 552) ve ogullarinin önderliginde bölgedeki Hiung-nu'yu Türk gücünün merkezi yaparak karli Ipek Yolu ticaretini ele geçirdi. Savas ve diplomaside üstünlüge sahip olan Bumin, ölmeden bir yil önce Hiung-nu'nun eski baskenti Ötüken'de Göktürk Imparatorlugu'nu kurarak kendisini krallarin büyük krali anlamina gelen Il Kagan ilan etti. Oglu Mukhan fetihleriyle güçlenerek imparatorlugu evrensel bir güce ulastirdi. Bumin'in kardesi Istemi, (ö. 576) batinin yabgusu ünvanini alarak Iranli Sasanilerle isbirligi yapti ve Cücenlerin ittifak içinde bulundugu Akhunlari yok etti. Avarlari Avrupa içlerine sürerek Ashina'nin Ipek Yolu'nu ticaretini saglamlastirdi.
Istemi'nin batiya genisleme politikasi, Türkleri Dogu Avrupa'ya getirmekti. 576'da Göktürkler Kirim'daki Kimmerler Bogazi'ni geçti. Bes yil sonra Tauris'i ablukaya alip; süvarilerinin Kirim steplerinde dolasmalarini 590'a kadar engelledi. Güneyde, önceki müttefikleri Sasanilerle çatismaya girdi. Belh'in de dahil oldugu Baktria'nin büyük bir kismi yüzyilin sonuna kadar Ashina'nin sömürgesi olarak kaldi. 588'de Birinci Sasani-Göktürk Savasi'nda Herat surlarinin altindaydilar; fakat Bahram Chobin büyük bir ustalikla saldirilara karsi koydu.
Dogudaki genis egemenlik bölgesinde Göktürk Imparatorlugu, Mançurya'yi ve Kore Yarimadasi'nin kuzey bölümünü kontrol altinda tutan Goguryeo Imparatorlugu'yla daha yakin iliskiler içine girdi. Hediyelerin degisimi, askeri destek için erzak saglanmasi ve serbest ticaret gibi unsurlar bu yakin ittifakin ortak faydalariydi. Kuzey Çin'deki her iki rakip ülke 581'den itibaren Göktürkler'e büyük vergiler ödedi.
Çin
Goguryeo her bir Çin eyaletiyle ölçülü diplomatik iliskiler içinde oldu ve Kuzey Qi Hanedanligi, Kuzey Zhou Hanedanligi ve Chen Hanedanligi hükümdarlarina vergi verdi. Çin'de Sui Hanedanligi'ndan önce gelen Güney ve Kuzey Hanedanliklari'nda ortaya çikan 16 Krallik iç savas ve siyasi uyusmazlik dönemiydi. Bununla birlikte o dönem sanat ve kültürde gösterisin, teknolojideki ilerlemenin ve yabanci Mahayana Budizmi ile yerel Taoizm'in yayildigi zamandi. Tipik Çin Budizmi'nin yanisira ortaya çiktigi zamanda kuzey ve güney hanedanliklariyla benzer sekilde olgunlasip gelismistir. Budist kutsal kitaplarinin ana hatlariyla Taoizm'in nüfuzu artmis ve iki temel Taoist ilkesi bu dönemde yazilmistir.
Goguryeo'da Budizm
Kore'de Budizm aslinda tarihi Buddha'nin ölümünden yaklasik 800 yil sonra Çin'den ögrenilmistir. 372'de önceki Qin hükümdari Fujian, Çinli kesis Sundo'yu Goguryeo krali Sosurim'in sarayina Çin metinlerini ve yasalarini götürmesi göndermistir. Samanizm, Kore'de yerel bir dindi; ancak Budizm doga ibadeti kurallariyla uyusmazlik içinde degildi, Goguryeo kraliyet ailesi ve tebaasi ögretilerini çabucak kabul etmistir. Budist öncesi zamanlarda ruhlarin mekani olduguna inanilan daglar Budist tapinaklarinin yeri oldu.
Kore Samanizmi'nde özellikle saygi gösterilen üç büyük ruh vardi: Sanshin (Dag Ruhu), Toksong (Münzevi) ve Chilsong (Yedi Yildizin Ruhu). Kore Budizm'i bu üç ruhu kabul edip kutsal emanetlerini birçok tapinaga yaydi. Dag Ruhu, tapinaklarda duran yerel dag ruhlarini yatistirmasi için özel olarak kabul edildi. Budizm ve Samanizm'in karisimi Buddha'nin temel ögretilerine karsi Kore Budizmi olarak bilinmeye basladi.
Çin Budizmi, sebep - sonuç kuralina ve Samanizm'le ortak olan mutlulugun aranmasi ilkesine dayaniyordu. Kore Budizmi, Pyeongwon'un emriyle Çin'e egitim almasi ve Budizm'in sistematik arastirmasi için gönderilen rahip Uiyon zamaninda en yüksek seviyesine ulasti. Uiyon'un arastirmasi üzerinde özellikle durdugu nokta "bilgelik", "anlayis", "dirayet", "bilissel duyarlilik" ya da "neyin nasil yapilmasi gerektigi" anlamlarina gelen "Prajñā veya paññā"dir.
Goguryeo Budizmi'nin diger bir özelligi ise Japonya'yla yakin isbirligi içinde olmasidir. Japon klasik tarihinin ikinci büyük kitabi Nihon Shoki, birçok Goguryeo kesisinin isminden bahsetmektedir. Örnegin Japon Budist rahibenin babasi Kore'den bir göçmendir ve Budist efendisi bir Goguryeo kesisidir. Prens Shotoku'nun Budist efendisi de bir Goguryeo kesisiydi.
English
Pyeongwon of Goguryeo
Emperor Pyeongwon of Goguryeo (ruled 559—590) was a sixth century Korean monarch, the twenty-fifth ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
BACKGROUND
During the reign of his father, King Yangwon (양원왕; 陽原王; r. 545 – 559), the kingdom had lost the region of Seoul to an alliance of Silla and Baekje forces, and was threatened with invasions by the Göktürks. Yangwon designated prince Pyeongwon (Go Yang-seong) as his successor two years before his death in 559. Courageous, and skilled in horsemanship and archery, Pyeongwon encouraged the development of agriculture and sericulture, and maintained relatively peaceful relations with the Göktürks and the various Chinese kingdoms of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The rule of Pyeongwon ended in 590, under undocumented circumstances.
Korean Buddhism reached its highest level under the priest Uiyon (義淵), who was ordered by Pyeongwon to go and study in China, where he conducted a systematic research of Buddhism.
LIFE
The years of Pyeongwon's rule are generally agreed upon by historians, but his year of birth has not been established with any degree of certainty. It is known that he was the eldest son of Emperor Yangwon and became crown prince in 557, two years before assuming full power. He is said to have been courageous, and skilled in horsemanship and archery.
By the time he ascended the throne, royal power had been significantly eroded by the aristocracy. Concerned about the circumstances of his people, Pyeongwon encouraged the development of agriculture and sericulture, and reduced royal expenditures on food.
Pyeongwon maintained tense but relatively peaceful relations with the Göktürks and the various Chinese dynasties, briefly battling the Northern Zhou in the Liaodong Peninsula. As the Sui Dynasty united China, Emperor Pyeongwon prepared for the impending war. As the Silla-Baekje alliance fell apart, Goguryeo’s southern border with the other two Korean kingdoms was relatively peaceful The rule of Pyeongwon of Goguryeo came to an end in 590, which is presumed to be the year of his death, but there is no specific documentation to confirm the circumstances.
GOGURYEO KINGDOM
The Göktürks (Kök-Türks, or Ashina) were an ancient Central Asian Turkic people, known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue (突厥 Tūjué). Under the leadership of Bumin Khan (d. 552) and his sons, they succeeded the Xiongnu as the main Turkic power in the region and took hold of the lucrative Silk Road trade. Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Il-Qaghan ("great king of kings") of the new Göktürk empire at Otukan, the old Xiongnu capital, but died a year later. His son Mukhan consolidated his conquests into an empire of global reach. Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576), titled yabghu of the west, collaborated with the Persian Sassanids to defeat and destroy the White Huns, who were allies of the Rouran, and drove the Avars into Europe, strengthening the Ashina hold on the Silk Road.
Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Turks into Eastern Europe. In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Cimmerian Bosporus into the Crimea. Five years later, they laid siege to Tauric Chersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590[1]. In the south they came into conflict with their former allies, the Sassanids of Persia. Much of Bactria (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century[2]. In 588, they were under the walls of Herat but Bahram Chobin ably countered the invasion during the First Perso-Turkic War.
In the eastern part of their extensive dominions, the Göktürk Empire maintained close political ties with the Goguryeo Empire, which controlled Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. The exchange of gifts, mutual provision of military support, and free trade were some of the benefits of this close mutual alliance. Both rival states in north China paid large tributes to the Göktürks from 581.
China
Goguryeo carefully maintained diplomatic relationship with each of the Chinese states and presented tribute to the suzerains of Northern Qi Dynasty, Northern Zhou Dynasty and Chen Dynasty. The period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (Chinese: 南北朝; pinyin: nánběicháo; 420-589 C.E.), which followed the Sixteen Kingdoms and preceded Sui Dynasty in China, was an age of civil war and political disunity. However, it was also a time of flourishing in the arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of foreign Mahayana Buddhism and native Daoism. Distinctive Chinese Buddhism also matured during this time and was shaped by the northern and southern dynasties alike. Daoism gained influence from the outline of Buddhist scriptures, and two essential Daoist canons were written during this period.
Although multiple-storied towers such as guard towers and residential apartments had existed previously, during this period the distinct Chinese pagoda tower (for storing Buddhist scriptures) evolved from the stupa, traditional Buddhist structures built to protect sutras in ancient India.
Buddhism in Goguryeo
Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from China about 800 years after the death of the historical Buddha. In 372, the Chinese monk Sundo (順道, or Shundao in Chinese) was sent by the Former Qin ruler Fujian (符堅) to the court of the King Sosurim (小獸林) of Goguryeo, bearing Chinese texts and statues. In Korea, shamanism was the indigenous religion, but as Buddhism was not seen to conflict with the rites of nature worship, the Goguryeo royalty and their subjects quickly accepted his teachings. Mountains that were believed to be the residence of spirits in pre-Buddhist times became the sites of Buddhist temples.
Korean Shamanism held three spirits in especially high regard: Sanshin (the Mountain Spirit), Toksong (the Recluse), and Chilsong (the Spirit of the Seven Stars, the Big Dipper). Korean Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and special shrines were set aside for them in many temples. The Mountain Spirit received particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local mountain spirits, on whose land the temples stood. This blend of Buddhism and Shamanism became known as Korean Buddhism, although the fundamental teachings of the Buddha remained.
The rudimentary Buddhism of China, consisting of the law of cause and effect and the search for happiness, had much in common with the predominant Shamanism. The Goguryeo court was attracted to the broad worldview of Buddhism, and wished to teach it to the people to enhance their spiritual development. Korean Buddhism reached its highest level under the priest Uiyon (義淵), who was ordered by Pyeongwon to go and study in China, where he conducted a systematic research of Buddhism. Uiyon especially focused his research on Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pali), translated as "wisdom," "understanding," "discernment," "cognitive acuity," or "know-how."
Another feature of Goguryeo Buddhism was its close association with Japan. The Nihon Shoki (日本書紀), the second oldest book of classical Japanese history, mentions the names of many Goguryeo monks. For example, the father of the first Japanese Buddhist nun (善信尼) was an immigrant from Korea, and her Buddhist master a Goguryeo monk. Prince Shotoku’s Buddhist master was also a Goguryeo monk.
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